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Problem

 

 

Problem Definition (Russell L. Ackoff and Fred E. Emery)
Problem Definition (Fremont E. Kast and James E. Rosenzweig)
Problem Definition (George Chadwick)
Problem Definition (Jean-Michel Hoc)
Problem formulation (Albert Einstein and Leopold Infeld)
Problem identification (Deobold B. Van Dalen)
Problem identification (L. Bruce Archer)
Problem origination (Karl Dunker)
Components of a problem (Richard E. Mayer)
Characterization of a problem (Irving M. Copi)
Values and problem (Hans Ozbekhan)
Universal problems (F. Kluckhohn and F. L. Strodtbeck)
Types of problems (Richard E. Mayer)
Representation of problems (Jean-Michel Hoc)

 

 

Problem Definition

[1972] Ackoff Russell L. Ackoff and Fred E.Emery, On Purposeful Systems 
“Problem : A purposeful state that a purposeful individual is dissatisfied with, and in which he is doubtful about which of the available courses of action will change that state to a satisfactory one.” (p. 108)

[1979, third edition] Fremont E.  Kast and James E. Rosenzweig, Organization and Management 
Problem : "a gap between a current and a desired condition."
(Chapter 23, p. 571)

[1971] George Chadwick, A Systems View of Planning
“Problem = Goal + Impediment to that Goal.”
(Chapter 6, p. 124)

[1988] Jean-Michel Hoc, Cognitive Psychology of Planning 
“... a problem does not define a task but rather a situation, i.e. the confrontation of a cognitive system (biological or artificial) with a task.”
“... a problem will be defined as the representation of a task constructed by a cognitive system when this system does not have an executable procedure for goal attainment immediately at its disposal.
The construction of a task representation is termed understanding, and the construction of the procedure, problem solving.”
“Thus an identical task is a problem for one individual, whereas for another it simply involves executing a procedure, albeit a complex one.”  (Chapter 2, p. 61)

 

Problem formulation  

[1938] Albert Einstein and Leopold Infeld, The Evolution of Physics
“The formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution, which may be merely a matter of mathematical or experimental skill. To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle, requires creative imagination and marks real advance in science.”  (Chapter 2, p. 95)

 

Problem identification
 
[1962] Deobold B. Van Dalen, Understanding Educational Research
“A problem materializes when you sense that something is not right or needs further explanation. Perhaps you find some facts that do not agree with accepted theories or beliefs, note that the results of several investigations are contradictory, detect inconsistencies between your observations and those made by other investigators, or observe something you cannot explain.
When you have an inkling that something is wrong or needs to be explained and are anxious to obtain a clearer concept of the factors causing the puzzling or commonplace occurrence, you have established some of the conditions necessary for identifying a problem.” (Chapter 7, p. 169)

[1969] L. Bruce Archer in Geoffrey Broadbent and Anthony Ward, Design Methods in Architecture 
“When the action appropriate to the correction of a particular unsatisfactory condition is not apparent, a problem is said to exist.
The problem may be concerned with the correct identification of the nature of the improvement required, or with the identification of the means for achieving it, or both.”
("The Structure of the Design Process", p. 76)

 

Problem origination 

[1945 - German Edition "On Problem Solving" 1935] Karl Dunker in P. C.Wason and P. N. Johnson-Laird (editors), Thinking and Reasoning (readings)
“A problem arises when a living creature has a goal but does not know how this goal is to be reached. Whenever one cannot go from the given situation to the desired situation simply by action, then there has to be recourse to thinking.
(By action we here understand the performance of obvious operations).
Such thinking has the task of devising some action which may mediate between the existing and the desired situations. Thus the ‘solution’ of a practical problem must fulfil two demands : in the first place its realization must bring about the goal situation, and in the second place one must be able to arrive at it from the given situation simply through action.” (p. 28)

 

Components of a problem

[1992, Second edition] Richard E. Mayer, Thinking, Problem Solving, Cognition 
-  Givens : the initial state of the problem
-  Goals : the desired or terminal state of the problem
-  Obstacles : the gap between initial and terminal state (e.g. lack of knowledge, lack of tools, etc.)
"In short, any definition of 'problem' should consist of the three ideas that
(1) the problem is presently in some state, but
(2) it is desired that it be in another state, and
(3) there is no direct, obvious way to accomplish the change."
(Chapter 1, p. 5 )

 

Characterization of a problem 
 
[1982, Sixth edition] Irving M. Copi, Introduction to Logic 
“A problem may be characterized as a fact or group of facts for which we have no acceptable explanation, which seem unusual, or which fail to fit in with our expectations or preconceptions. It should be obvious that some prior beliefs are required if anything is to appear problematic. If there are no expectations, there can be no surprises.”
(Chapter 13, p. 476)

 

Values and problem

[1968] Hans Ozbekhan in Erich Jantsch (editor), Perspectives of Planning 
“Perception of a situation that is problematic, namely, in need of solutions or improvements or betterment, is a function of a given value system, for it is in terms of such a value system that judgments can be made as to the nature of the situation.”
“If a situation is recognized as problematical, it means that there exist a dissonance between the situation and the value system.”
("Toward a General Theory of Planning", p. 152)

 

Universal problems 

[1961] Florence Kluckhohn and Fred L. Strodtbeck, Variations in Value Orientations 
“Five problems have been tentatively singled out as the crucial ones common to all human groups :
(1) What is the character of innate human nature ? (human nature   orientation)
(2) What is the relation of man to nature (and supernature) ? (man-nature  orientation)
(3) What is the temporal focus of human life ? (time  orientation)
(4) What is the modality of human activity ? (activity  orientation)
(5) What is the modality of man’s relationship to other men ? (relational  orientation).”
(pp. 10-11)

 

Types of problems  

[1992, Second edition] J. G. Greeno and H. Simon in Richard E. Mayer, Thinking, Problem Solving, Cognition
-  Problems of transformation :  Given a well-defined initial state and goal state, the problem solver must find a sequence of operations that produces the goal state.
-  Problems of arrangement :  Given all the elements and a general description of the goal, the problem solver must arrange the elements in a way that solves the problem.
-  Problems of inducing structure :  Given several examples or instances, the problem solver must discover a general rule or pattern that is consistent with the information. [e.g. induction]
-  Evaluation of deductive arguments :  Given premises,  determine whether or not a conclusion logically follows. [e.g. deduction]
"... many of the most interesting problems include aspects of several types of problems."
(from Chapter 1, p. 6)

 

Problem representation

[1988] Jean-Michel Hoc, Cognitive Psychology of Planning
“By definition, a problem is ill-structured or ill-defined when the initial representation of the problem is not able to trigger an execution procedure. In this case problem understanding is a gradual affair. In many instances this is translated by a series of ‘problem restructurings.” (Chapter 2, pp. 63-64)

 

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