Texts
- The Problem of Learning
- Problemistics Courseware
- Corso su Problemistica
- Resources Management
- Manuale/Intellettuale
- Campagna/Città
Problemistics - Problémistique - Problemistica
The Art & Craft of Problem Dealing
Goal
Definition (Russell L. Ackoff and Fred E. Emery)
Definition (Paul Davidoff and Thomas A. Reiner)
Definition (Fremont E. Kast and James E. Rosenzweig)
Definition (Union of International Associations)
Goals, objectives (George Chadwick)
Goals, objectives (Andreas Faludi)
Goals, objectives, targets (Peter Hall)
Goals, objectives, ideals (Russell L. Ackoff)
Classification (Jean-Michel Hoc)
Goals and values (Hans Ozbekhan)
Goals values and motives (Herbert A. Simon)
Goals formulating (Herbert A. Simon)
Degree specification (Herbert A. Simon)
Performance specification (J. Brian McLoughlin)
Performance specification (C. West Churchman)
Goals interference (Jean-Michel Hoc)
Purpose and purposiveness (Union of International Associations)
Purposeful behaviour (Geoffrey Broadbent)
Purpose and feedback (Walter Buckley)
Planning (George Chadwick)
Planning (Herbert J. Gans)
Planning stages (Herbert J. Gans)
Goals and problems (George Chadwick)
Goals and subgoals (Jean-Michel Hoc)
Method of stating objectives (J. Christopher Jones)
Goals and organizations (Fremont E. Kast and James E. Rosenzweig)
Final goals (Herbert A. Simon)
Hierarchy of goals (Herbert A. Simon)
Goals and choices (Andreas Faludi)
Means-ends analysis (Herbert A. Simon)
Choice maximization (Herbert J. Gans)
[1972] Russell L. Ackoff and Fred E. Emery, On Purposeful Systems, Tavistock Publications, London.
"Goal: an intermediate intended outcome." (Chapter I, p. 56)
[1973] Paul Davidoff & Thomas A. Reiner in Andreas Faludi editor, A Reader in Planning Theory, Pergamon Press, Oxford
“Goals are value statements.” ("A Choice Theory of Planning", p. 22)
[1979, Third Edition] Fremont E. Kast and James E. Rosenzweig, Organization and Management, McGraw-Hill
"Simply stated, goals represent the desired future conditions that the organization strives to achieve. In this sense, goals include missions, purposes, objectives, targets, quotas, and deadlines." (p. 151)
"Basically, goals are plans expressed as results to be achieved." (p. 420)
[1986, Second Edition] Union of International Associations eds., Encyclopaedia of World Problems and Human Potential, K. G. Saur, München
"An operational objective which a system seeks to achieve or maximize." (KC1717)
[1971] George Chadwick, A Systems View of Planning, Pergamon Press, Oxford
“A Goal is an end towards which a design tends, an aim or purpose; it is a more specific desirable state than a value. Thus a person will have values, from which goals may be derived; from these goals Objectives may be formed. An objective is an aim, or end of action, a point to be hit or reached.” (Chapter 6, pp. 125-126)
[1976, First edition 1973] Andreas Faludi, Planning Theory, Pergamon Press, Oxford
“An objective is ... an operational definition of a goal.”
(Chapter 5, p. 101)
[1977, First edition 1975] Peter Hall, Urban & Regional Planning, Penguin, Harmondsworth
Goals are essentially general and highly abstract; they tend to fall into broad categories such as social, economic and aesthetic (some of which categories may overlap), and they may include qualities of the planning process itself, such as flexibility."
"Objectives in contrast are rather more specific; they are defined in terms of actual programmes capable of being carried into action, though they fall short of detailed quantification. They also require the expenditure of resources so that they imply an element of competition for scarce resources."
"Finally, as a further stage of refinement, objectives are turned into targets representing specific programmes in which criteria of performance are set against target dates." "Targets, by their nature, tend to be very specific and particular; one problem that emerges from the whole goals-objectives-targets process, therefore, is that of integrating rather disparate individual programmes into a coherent plan." (p. 276)
[1976, First edition 1972] Russell L. Ackoff, Towards a System of Systems Concepts, in Beishon, John & Peters, Geoff eds., Systems Behaviour, Open University Press and Harper & Row, London"The goal of a purposeful system in a particular situation is a preferred outcome that can be obtained within a specified period."
"The objective of a purposeful system in a particular situation is a preferred outcome that cannot be obtained within a specified period but which can be obtained over a longer time period."
"A ideal is an objective that cannot be obtained in any time period but which can be approached without limit." "For example, an ideal of science is errorless observations. The amount of observer error can be reduced without limit but can never be reduced to zero.” ("Towards a System of Systems Concepts", p. 109)
[1988] Jean-Michel Hoc, Cognitive Psychology of Planning, Academic Press, London
“A goal can be more or less well-defined; in other words it can be more or less schematic.”
“Secondly, a goal can be more or less remote, i.e. the anticipatory span is variable. The more remote a goal, the fewer the possibilities for anticipation, and the greater the necessity to define subgoals to regulate tasks accomplishment.” (Chapter 1, p. 19)
[1968] Hans Ozbekhan in Eric Jantsch ed., Perspectives of Planning, OECD
“Goals ... have to be formed in relation to values which ... refer in the case of the individual to hierarchies of preferences. These individual preferences are, in turn, dictated and actually created by the social values to which a particular environment, seen as a particular culture, is historically committed.”
("Toward a General Theory of Planning", p. 125)
[1971] Herbert A. Simon in H. Igor Ansoff ed., Business Strategy
“By goals we shall mean value premises that can serve as inputs to decisions. By motives we mean the causes, whatever they are, that lead individuals to select some goals rather than others as premises for their decisions.”
("On the Concept of Organizational Goal", pp. 241-242)
[1965] Herbert A. Simon, Administrative Behaviour, The Free Press, New York, First edition 1945
“Aims ... must be stated in tangible and objective terms before results can be observed and measured.”
(Chapter IX, p. 176)
[1965, First edition 1945] Herbert A. Simon, Administrative Behaviour, The Free Press, New York
"Defining objectives does not exhaust the value element in an administrative decision. It is necessary to determine, in addition, the degree to which the objective is to be attained.”
“Attainment of objectives is always a matter of degree.” (Chapter IX, p. 177)
[1973, First Edition 1969] J. Brian McLoughlin, Urban and Regional Planning
“Goal setting in planning as in any other similar operation requires the establishment of performance criteria for a definable system.” (Chapter 6, p. 111)
[1979, First published 1968] C. West Churchman, The Systems Approach, Dell Publishing, New York
“... the scientist needs to move from the vague statement of objectives to some precise and specific measures of performance of the overall system.” (Chapter 3, p. 31)
[1988] Jean-Michel Hoc, Cognitive Psychology of Planning, Academic Press, London
Goal interference can take place in two ways:
1. when a precondition associates them;
2. when goals interact. This is the case of goal conflict, where the choice of a particular type of goal attainment can endanger the goal attainment preconditions of the other.
When this happens we must:
- recognize goal interference;
- rectify harmful interference which prevent the plan from reaching its overall goal, since one form of goal attainment can jeopardize the preconditions for reaching another;
- taking advantage of helpful interference to generate optimal plans since some forms of goal attainment can facilitate others. (from Chapter 5, pp. 164-165)
[1986, Second Edition] Encyclopaedia of World Problems and Human Potential, Union of International Associations eds. K. G. Saur, München
Purpose/Purposiveness
“1. A characteristic of human behaviour whereby actual behaviour is determined by the foresight of the goal.
2. The intent that is intrinsic to planning action and which gives it direction. The main purpose of planning is to create controlled change in the environment, and the reason for wanting such change is that complex dynamic situations tend toward increasing degrees of de-organization (ecological imbalance) unless higher order organizing activities are introduced. The purpose of affecting that situation is therefore either to solve the problems that inhere to the situation, or to improve the situation, or to establish a general control and dynamic over the environment so as to obtain organized progress within it."
3. The concept of purposiveness involves a notion of hierarchy of decisions in which each step downward in the hierarchy consists in an implementation of the goals set forth in the step immediately above. Such purposiveness brings about an integration in the pattern of behaviour, in the absence of which administration of an organization would be meaningless.
Purpose may be roughly defined as the objective or end for which a process is undertaken. There is no essential difference between a purpose and a process but only a distinction of degree. A process is an activity whose immediate purpose is at a low level in the hierarchy of means and ends, while a purpose is a collection of activities whose orienting value or aim is at a high level in the means-end hierarchy.” (KC0730)
[1988] Geoffrey Broadbent, Design in Architecture. Architecture and the Human Sciences, David Fulton Publishers, London, first ed. 1973
“Whatever the external goal, ... the process of search must involve some internal representation of the goal. Once this goal is thus represented internally, one seeks to match the external environment to it and one’s activity can be defined as goal-seeking. Men can also set goals for machines providing appropriate internal representation for them and once the goal has been defined their goal-seeking activity is little different from ours. Goal-seeking purposeful behaviour, therefore, consists of matching external events or objects to internal test criteria, and of course, devolves true feedback loops, not just simple circular causal chains.”
(Chapter 18, p. 372)
[1967] Walter Buckley, Sociology and Modern Systems Theory
“Feedback-controlled systems are referred to as goal-directed, and not merely goal-oriented.” (p. 53)
“... purposeful behaviour involves true feedback loops, not just simple, circular causal chains.” (p. 70)
[1971] George Chadwick, A Systems View of Planning, Pergamon Press, Oxford
A Method of Goal Formulation for a Town Planning Problem
1. Identify the clients
2. Identify the distribution of values among the clients.
3. Arrange the goals as a hierarchy.
4. Establish measures or standards relative to each goal.
5. Apply measures to goals to convert to objectives.
6. Express the planning problem as requirements to be satisfied.
7. Design means of reaching the objectives. The plan!
8. Evaluate these means. Are the means feasible, acceptable? What are their consequences? Do they really achieve the objectives set; in full, or in part? (from Chapter 6, pp. 127-128)
[1972, First Edition 1968] Herbert J. Gans, People and Plans
“I would define goal-oriented planning as developing programmes or means to allocate limited resources in order to achieve the goals of the community (and its members) ranked in order of priority. The crucial elements in this definition are goals, the programmes to achieve them, the consequences of achieving these, especially cost in relation to resources and the criteria of ordering goals and programmes in the priority of those to be achieved first, or later, and those to be given up.” (p. 98)
“The most difficult problem is to determine whose goals and which goals are to be achieved.” (p. 98)
“Thus it is necessary to decide whose goals are to be implemented, whose are to be set aside, and, where possible, whether conflicting goals can be combined in some way as that as many as possible are achieved.” (p. 99)
[1972, First Edition 1968] Herbert J. Gans, People and Plans
Goal oriented planning: from goals to programmes. Phases:
1. Statement of goal in operational terms.
2. Development of programme alternatives to achieve the goal.
3. Analysis of three types of consequences of implementing these programme alternatives:
(a) Goal achievement: do the programmes achieve the goals?
(b) Costs: what are the costs, in various kinds of resources, for effectuating the programmes?
(c) Other consequences: what effects do these programmes have on other
aspects of the social system and on the achievement of other goals?
4. Comparison of programmes: which of the alternative programmes functions best and most efficiently with respect to:
(a) Achievement of goals.
(b) Maximization of benefits over costs.
(c) Minimization of undesirable consequences.
5. Comparison of goal in relation to other goals:
(a) Comparison at the level of costs: is the goal worth the costs and the shifting of resources from other goals?
(b) Comparison at the level of goals: is the goal worth the detrimental consequences, if any, on the achievement of other goals?
(c) Development of goal priority: how does the goal rank with others in a priority system?
6. Final planning decision:
(a) Acceptance or rejection of goal and programme, with given consequences.
(b) Alteration of goal and programme to minimize undesirable consequences.” (Chapter 7, pp. 106-107)
[1971] George Chadwick, A Systems View of Planning, Pergamon Press, Oxford
“... if a problem is recognised, the implication is that there must be a goal...”
“Problem = Goal + Impediment to that Goal” (Chapter 6, p. 124)
[1988] Jean-Michel Hoc, Cognitive Psychology of Planning, Academic Press, London
"The decomposition of the goal into subgoals can combine two main forms, which characterize two contrasting types of subgoals:
- the goal is expressed as the conjunction of subgoals which can be carried out in parallel;
- the goal is expressed as a temporal chaining of subgoals corresponding to the satisfaction of preconditions."
(Chapter 5, p. 158)
[1982, First published 1970] J. Christopher Jones, Design Methods. Seeds of human future, John Wiley & Sons, New York
"Aim: To identify external conditions with which the design must be compatible.”
"Outline
1. Identify the situation within which the design is to operate.
2. Identify features of this situation with which the design must be compatible if it is to be accepted by the sponsors. These include:
(a) the sponsor’s expectations and the reasons for them;
(b) the resources available;
(c) the essential objectives.
Compatibility with these features is the ultimate objective.
3. Ensure that statements identifying the objectives are compatible with each other and with information that becomes available while designing." (Method 3.1, p. 194)
[1979, Third Edition] Fremont E. Kast and James E. Rosenzweig, Organization and Management, McGraw-Hill,
“The goals of an organization influence its interactions with the environmental supra system and other subsystems. The efforts to achieve goals affect the ability of the organization to receive resources inputs from the broader society and this legitimize its existence. Goals focus the attention of participants on actions that are organizationally relevant. They provide the standards for measurement of success. They help determine the technologies required and also set the basis for specialization of effort, authority patterns, communication and decision networks and other structural relationships. The nature of goals affects the basic character of the organization.” (pp. 151-152)
“Organizations do have multiple goals. These goals are frequently not officially stated and are often in conflict. There may be inconsistencies and ambiguities.
The goal set of the organization is continually changing as a result of this learning-adapting process.” (p. 153)
[1988, First edition 1969] Herbert A. Simon, The Sciences of the Artificial, M.I.T. Press, Cambridge Massachusetts
“What we call ‘final’ goals are in fact criteria for choosing the initial conditions that we will leave to our successors.”
“What are good initial conditions for them? One desideratum would be a world offering as many alternatives as possible to future decision makers, avoiding irreversible commitments that they cannot undo.” “A second desideratum is to leave the next generation of decision makers with a better body of knowledge and a greater capacity for experience. The aim here is to enable them not just to evaluate alternatives better but especially to experience the world in more and richer ways.” (Chapter 6, p. 187)
[1965, First edition 1945] Herbert A. Simon, Administrative Behaviour, The Free Press, New York
“The fact that goals may be dependent for their force on other more distant ends leads to the arrangement of these goals in a hierarchy - each level to be considered as an end relative to the levels below it and as a means relative to the levels above it. Through the hierarchical structure of ends, behaviour attains integration and consistency, for each member of a set of behaviour alternatives is then weighed in terms of a comprehensive scale of values - the ‘ultimate’ ends.” (Chapter IV, p. 63)
[1976, First published 1973] Andreas Faludi, Planning Theory, Pergamon Press, Oxford
“For any goal, or any set of goals, there may be several paths to its successful attainment.” “The formulation of an objective usually requires a choice between alternative ways of achieving the goal to which it relates.”
(Chapter 5, p. 101)
[1988, First edition 1969] Herbert A. Simon, The Sciences of the Artificial, M.I.T. Press, Cambridge Massachusetts“The condition of any goal-seeking system is that it is connected to the outside environment through two kinds of channels: the afferent, or sensory, channels through which it receives information about the environment and the efferent, or motor, channels through which it acts on the environment. The system must have some means of storing in its memory information about states of the world - afferent, or sensory, information - and information about actions - efferent, or motor, information. Ability to attain goals depends on building up associations, which may be simple or very complex, between particular changes in states of the world and particular actions that will (reliably or not) bring these changes about.” (Chapter 5, p. 141)
[1972, First Edition 1968] Herbert J. Gans, People and Plans
“The fundamental value underlying all goals to be considered [by the Social Planning Division] is that [Puerto Rican] society should maximize the choices its people can make in all spheres of life and should give them the opportunities - socio-economic, educational, and political - to make such choices.”
“The maximal-choice criterion is appropriate as the basis for all other values because it leaves members of the society free to make their own choices and to live as they wish, once they have the opportunities for choice. This prevents the possibility that goals for living set by a majority must deprive minorities with other ways of life and vice versa.” (Chapter 7, p. 105)